Barrier & Computer

Computer hardware is no longer a major barrier to wide use of wireless information systems. This is due to the number of different systems available to connect on. I will be discussing 3 of these, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and 3G. The Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) standard is based on the 802. 11 specification and is currently the most common standard for wireless home and small-office networking. Wi-Fi is ideal for small-business and home wireless networks with an indoor range of about 150 feet and an outdoor range of about 300 feet.In a simple network, the network signal is brought into the home/office via a modem, and a router/access point distributes the signal. There are four common versions of 802. 11, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. 802. 11n The 802. 11n specification is the most recent development in the area of Wi-Fi. 802. 11n builds on previous 802. 11 standards by adding multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and 40 MHz channels to the physical (PHY) layer, and frame ag gregation to the MAC layer. MIMO is a technology which uses multiple antennas to coherently resolve more information than possible using a single antenna.Two important benefits it provides to 802. 11n are antenna diversity and spatial multiplexing. 802. 11g The 802. 11g specification is the most recent of the Wi-Fi specs to be approved and is currently the most commonly implemented Wi-Fi standard. Like 802. 11n and 802. 11b, 802. 11g operates in the 2. 4GHz spectrum, but without the MIMO advantage of 802. 11n, 802. 11g is highly subject to interference from other electronic devices that operate in the same spectrum, such as cordless phones and baby monitors. 802. 11b As the first popular Wi-Fi technology, the 802.11b specification offers slower data speeds than 802. 11n, 802. 11g, or 802. 11a, with a theoretical throughput of 11Mbps and real-world performance of about 5Mbps. Otherwise, its specs mirror those of 802. 11g. 802. 11b has an indoor range of about 150 feet, and it operate s in the 2. 4GHz band, making it highly susceptible to interference from other devices. On the positive side, 802. 11b products are very inexpensive, if you can find them. 802. 11a An oddity of the Wi-Fi specs is 802. 11a–it's less common but does have certain advantages over 802.11g. 802. 11a operates in the 5GHz frequency, which means it's less susceptible to interference from cordless phones and microwave ovens. 802. 11a also boasts speeds similar to 802. 11g, though because 802. 11g and 802. 11a use different frequencies, they can't talk directly to one another. If you're using an 802. 11a adapter on a notebook, you won't be able to connect to most Wi-Fi hot spots. 802. 11a also lacks the range of the other Wi-Fi flavors, spanning only about 100 feet. Finally, the 5GHz radio inside 802.11a products will drain power faster than a 2. 4GHz radio . Next is Bluetooth, a low-power radio signal specification that allows devices to communicate and exchange information on a smalle r scale than Wi-Fi using a personal-area network. Bluetooth's practical throughput is roughly 500Kbps, and its range is no more than 30 feet, making Bluetooth ideal for simple exchanges of information between devices. Bluetooth is also easier to use than Wi-Fi. Bluetooth devices that come within range of each other can communicate automatically with little or no setup.Common applications for Bluetooth include wireless keyboards and mice for notebook and desktop PCs, communication and file transfers between PCs and PDAs; wireless printing to a Bluetooth printer; and wireless headsets for cell phones. Newer applications include Bluetooth-enabled cars that communicate with Bluetooth-enabled phones, allowing for true hands-free phone operation in the car. However, Bluetooth operates on the 2. 4GHz band, subject to the same interference issues as 802. 11 network devices.3G is an broad term that refers to third-generation wireless networks that deliver broadband speeds to cell phones and other mobile devices. With speeds between 144Kbps and 2. , you can download files, surf the Web, send and receive e-mail, or stream music and video over the cellular networks. With a cellular modem or a 3G phone, you don't have to find discrete hot spots; an entire metropolitan area with a 3G network is essentially a giant hot spot of sorts. There are several types of 3G to choose from. The two main versions of 3G are UMTS and EVDO. Speeds for each are comparable, though EVDO is more widely available.Currently, Verizon Wireless is the main provider of EVDO networks, with coverage in about 50 cities and metropolitan areas. UMTS is available through Cingular/AT&T Wireless, though only in very limited areas. Cingular/AT&T also provides EDGE networks, which are technically 2. 5G cellular technology. EDGE is slower than both UMTS and EVDO, transmitting data at rates of about 90Kbps. On the plus side, EDGE networks are more widely available than UMTS, and in fact, Cingular encourages usin g EDGE networks when outside of their geographically limited UMTS coverage areas .The next generation of wireless system is, WiBro (Wireless Broadband) is a wireless broadband Internet technology developed by the South Korean telecoms industry. WiBro is the South Korean service name for IEEE 802. 16e international standard. WiBro adopts TDD for duplexing, OFDMA for multiple access and 8. 75 MHz as a channel bandwidth. WiBro was devised to overcome the data rate limitation of mobile phones and to add mobility to broadband Internet access In February 2002, the Korean government allocated 100 MHz of electromagnetic spectrum in the 2.3 – 2. 4 GHz band, and in late 2004 WiBro Phase 1 was standardized by the TTA of Korea and in late 2005 ITU reflected WiBro as IEEE 802. 16e. Two South Korean Telecoms (KT, SKT) launched commercial service in June 2006 . In the course of just a few short years, wireless technologies have changed the way we connect computers, phones, PDAs, and other d evices both to each other and to the Internet. Today, Wi-Fi is the most popular wireless local-area networking technology and is now a common feature of many laptops, PDAs, and even cameras.Bluetooth has opened the door to low cost wireless personal-area networks (WPAN). Designed primarily as a cable replacement technology, WPAN systems help you connect with low power requirements at short ranges. WWANs, or wireless wide-area networks, are designed to deliver high bandwidth across large areas. WWANs are already beginning to offer wireless alternatives to cable Internet access and DSL. As a result, these technologies and upcoming technologies have led to hardware no longer being a barrier to the wide use of wireless technologies.

Happiness Found in Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde Essay

Most heroism deals with promotion of virtue and reproach of vice. Sloughing off from such a hackneyed, yet widely used frame of thought, the novel ‘The Happy Prince’ (1888) by Oscar Wilde connects heroism with compassion. With a subconscious reminiscent between ‘courage’ and ‘hero’, compassion is generally not a primary association with a strong image of a hero. Oscar Wilde however, through utilization of ‘the happy prince’ as a mechanism, conveys the idea of compassion and sacrifice which consists of happiness and beauty under a plot of heroism. The compassion felt by the Happy Prince can be distinguished in two levels of analysis: on himself and on the poor. The Happy Prince, once a real prince who lived within absolute extravagance, had a life far from poverty, hunger or servility. Upon encountering the inferior reality of civilian faces after becoming a statue, the Happy Prince expresses his compassion on himself by saying: â€Å"My courtiers called me the Happy Prince, and happy indeed I was, if pleasure be happiness. (5)This distinction indicates the realization of the Happy Prince on the difference between aesthetic happiness and materialistic pleasure. It also foreshadows the displacement of the Happy Prince’s compassion from his own past self to the poor, which causes heroic action by the Happy Prince. The jewels sent by the Happy Prince to the poor in the novel are not just simple sapphires or gold. Rather, they are ‘true’ jewels resulted from self compassion. Such open-mindedness of the Happy Prince allows him to be penitent for his past misdeeds and sacrifice himself to supplement such faults, which resulted in promotion of the common good. History tells us that those who are titled as ‘leaders’ sacrifice themselves for others. Regardless of how much sacrifice they burden, all leaders have a certain extent of private loss to yield common welfare. Similarly, the story ‘The Happy Prince’ also depicts heroism based on sacrifice. In the novel, the Happy Prince, having beauty as a single reason for its production, sacrifices himself to the non haves on the streets by distributing his jewels through the help of a sparrow. Since the purpose for its existence diminishes, the mayor of the city eventually destroys the statue of the Happy Prince. The point Oscar Wilde makes at this part is that action for others with sincerity and truthfulness overwhelms the loss one gets through such action. As Erich Fromm, a German philosopher wrote in his book, ‘To Have or To Be’, property without purpose loses the value of it and absence with a purpose is more valued than its presence. Having firm belief on his action, the Happy Prince was able to practice his heroism. Mother Theresa said she lived a happy life. Her ‘happy life’, Mother Theresa said, seems to overlap with the life the Happy Prince lived as a statue. They both gave everything they had for others and earned happiness as exchange. Compassion and sacrifice may be a true key to opening a treasure box full of happiness and beauty.

Science Fari Final Report for Oven Baked Ice Cream

Science Fair 2012 By Anna Neuber Question If I put ice cream to bake in an oven, will the egg white and sugar mixture insulate it well enough so it won’t melt? Hypothesis If I put the ice cream into the egg white mixture and heat it up in the oven at 260 °, it will not melt because of the insulation. Variables Independent Variables The independent variables are those that are changed throughout the experiment. In my experiment I am going to change the amount of egg white mixture on the ice cream (in my first experiment I put very little and the experiment didn’t work out).I will also be changing the type of ice cream. This will not affect the experiment but it will change the taste. Dependent Variable The dependent variable is the one that is measured during the experiment. I will be measuring/observing the texture and outcome of the ice cream after it has been baked in the oven. Controlled Variables The controlled variables are the ones that you try to keep constant throughout your experiment so that they don’t affect your experiment. I will be keeping the temperature of the oven the same and the type of cookie that I place the ice cream on.Background Research Ice cream usually melts when exposed to heat. This is an observable physical change. But could there be a way to keep it in tact without letting it melt? In fact, there is a way! Americans eat this as a treat and call it â€Å"Baked Alaska†. In effect it is ice cream covered in an egg white mixture put into an oven. Why doesn’t it melt? The egg whites mixture acts as an insulator and keeps the ice cream cool. The air bubbles slow down the penetration of heat from the outside. Once baked, the dessert is hot on the outside and freezing on the inside.If I put the bowl of ice cream into the egg white mixture and then on the cookie and put it into the oven at 260 degrees Celsius, will it melt or will it stay intact because of the insulation? Oven baked ice cream isnâ€℠¢t an experiment like mixing metals with acids. It’s actually a dessert. The name it was given is â€Å"Baked Alaska†. The name â€Å"Baked Alaska† comes from Delmonico's Restaurant in New York City in 1876, and was created in honor of the newly acquired territory of Alaska. It is basically hard ice cream on a bed of sponge cake.The process is simple; this ‘cake' is kept in the freezer until serving time, when it is placed in a very hot oven, just long enough to brown the meringue. Baked Alaska and similar desserts use the insulating properties of the trapped air in the cellular structure of the foams (the meringue and sponge cake) which keeps the heat from reaching the ice cream. Early versions of this dessert consisted of ice cream covered in a very hot pastry crust. (Ehler, 1990-2012) Since ice cream doesn't really leave a trace like pots or weapons, there is not much history about ice cream.It is said that people living in places in prehistoric times w here snow and ice were abundant made themselves a sort of â€Å"sorbet† by adding fruits to give the ice a flavor. Also, some left over ice houses, where ice was produced, have been found. Ice houses are known to have existed as early as 2,000 B. C. in Mesopotamia. They were built by rich Mesopotamians. Also, some Egyptian Pharaohs ordered ice from the colder regions to be shipped into Egypt. A lot later on, the Arabs began using syrup and sugar instead of honey.In the 10th century B. C. , ice cream was sold in all major Arab cities. The Chinese also picked up the use of ice cream, and it began to be a popular treat in the hot months of the year. (Zinger, 2012) Ancient people first began cooking on open fires. The cooking fires were put on the ground and later simple brick constructions were used to hold the wood. Simple ovens were used by the ancient Greeks for making bread and other baked goods. By the middle ages, taller brick and cement fireplaces, often with chimneys, we re being built.The food to be cooked was placed in metal cauldrons that hung above the fire. The first written historical record of an oven being built refers to an oven built in 1490, in Alsace, France. To improve the ovens, fire chambers were invented that contained the wood fire, and holes were built into the top of these chambers that cooking pots with flat bottoms could be placed directly upon replacing the cauldron. Around 1728, cast iron ovens began to be made in quantity. These first ovens of German design were called Five-plate or Jamb stoves.Around 1800, Benjamin Thompson invented a working iron kitchen stove called the Rumford stove that was designed for very large working kitchens. However, the Rumford stove was too large from the average kitchen and inventors continued to improve their designs. Cast iron stoves continued to evolve, with iron gratings added to the cooking holes, and added chimneys and connecting flue pipes. Jordan Mott invented the first practical coal o ven in 1833. British inventor, James Sharp patented a gas oven in 1826, the first semi-successful gas oven to appear on the market.It was not until the late 1920s and early 1930s that electric ovens began to compete with gas ovens, however, electric ovens were available as early as the 1890s. Some historians credit, Canadian Thomas Ahearn with inventing the first electric oven in 1882. The Carpenter Electric Heating Manufacturing Company invented an electric oven in 1891. In 1910, William Hadaway designed the first toaster made by Westinghouse, a horizontal combination toaster-cooker. (Bellis, 2012) In conclusion, I can only say that ice cream definitely doesn’t melt in the oven.But only if you cover it safely in egg whites mixture. On my first experiment, the ice cream melted partially and it wasn’t very successful. This is why I have repeated the experiment to get a different result. I only tried one recipe because the other ones take about 8 to 10 hours and I donâ⠂¬â„¢t have so much time available. The thing that went wrong on the first experiment I think was that the ice cream wasn’t insulated well enough. My second experiment went very well and I was happy about the results, but the last one was not much better than the first trial.This was because the ice cream slipped off the cookie. In summation; oven baked ice cream is definitely not an easy experiment and it takes practice to get a good outcome that tastes good and looks nice as well! Materials List – 3 or 4 large eggs – Vanilla ice cream – 1 large cookie – 113 grams of sugar – Large mixing bowl – Whisk or fork – Ice cream scoop or spoon – Cookie sheet – Aluminum foil – Oven Experimental Procedure 1. Extract the egg whites from the eggs. The egg white has to land in the bowl. 3. Use your whisk or fork to beat the egg-whites in the bowl, slowly adding in the sugar as you mix.Keep beating the egg whites and sug ar until you have a glossy looking mixture. 4. Pre-heat your oven to 260 degrees Celsius 5. Line your cookie-sheet with the aluminum foil so that it covers the entire surface 6. Place your cookie on the center of the foil-lined cookie sheet 7. Take a big scoop of Ice Cream that is about the circumference of the cookie and place is in the egg white mixture. Make sure the ice cream is completely covered and submerged. 8. Take the ice cream from the mixture and place it on the cookie 9. When the oven is pre-heated, place the cookie sheet on the bottom rack 10.Bake the ice cream cookie until the ice cream starts to turn a golden brown, about 5 minutes. 11. Remove the ice cream cookie from the oven and allow a few minutes to cool. Data Analysis Trial| Result| Observation| 1| Bad| The ice cream almost completely melted and the egg whites mixture didn’t insulate properly. Some parts of the egg whites mixture turned a gold-brownish color, but some stayed white and didn’t bake properly. To improve: I need to put on more egg whites mixture. | 2| good| The ice cream barely melted and there was more left than in the experiment before.To improve: I need to leave it longer to bake. | 3| Ok| The ice cream didn’t completely melt but it slipped of the cookie which was not the point of the experiment, still it didn’t melt fully. I left it longer to bake as well. | Observations In the first experiment, I used vanilla ice cream while in the second I used chocolate and in the third I used strawberry. This change only affected the taste and did not change the procedure of the experiment. Also, by adding more and more egg whites, I noticed that the ice cream didn’t melt as fast or almost not at all.I kept the oven temperature the same and also the type of cookie. The â€Å"texture† of the outcome of the ice cream was always creamy and soft. The outsides were a slight golden brown but that is the result that is expected. Conclusions Experimen t Conclusion Relating to my hypothesis, I can conclude that I predicted half correct and half wrong. First of all, two of my experiments failed and one trial worked out, so my hypothesis was only partly right. Secondly, it is probably quite hard to bake ice cream and it must take practice to get it right.I looked at different recipes as well, but all of them take about 8 – 10 hours and it is hard to record it that way and I can’t make my experiment last that long either. Unfortunately, I didn’t record my experiment in a video, but I have made a picture of my first trial. Overall Conclusion My overall conclusion is that I am very happy with my experiment. How did I come up with my experiment? I was looking through a website that had a whole list of experiments, and when I saw the â€Å"Oven baked ice cream† experiment, I was immediately interested, because it seemed impossible to me that something like that actually works out.So then I started doing some r esearch and finally I used this as my experiment. My hypothesis was that the ice cream wouldn’t melt, because I believed that, if the experiment exists and is also served in restaurants it must work. I was really curious to try it out myself, and my outcomes were not too bad (except for my first try). It even tastes good. I think overall I am very pleased with my experiment and what I have achieved. I am glad that I chose this topic because it is interesting to research about and it is also really fun to bake.I have displayed a few pictures and a video too! It is really easy to make the ice cream—well at least from the recipe that I have found. It doesn’t work out straight away, but I think you need to personalize the recipe a little bit so that it suits your taste. I hope that we do a Science Fair next year again because I really enjoyed the planning and research, but I think to enjoy the preparation to science fair you have to choose a topic that really suits you and that you are actually interested in.So all in all, my opinion to science fair is that it is great fun and, even if this first time everyone was a little bit under time pressure, I think it worked out well and I hope that the actual day of science fair will reward our effort and hard work! Acknowledgements I would like to say thank you to my teachers Ms. Mullen and Ms. Phan for helping me in my science fair project. I would also like to thank my mum and my dad for helping me with my experiment. Last but not least I want to thank Ms. Wiedemann and Mr. Lenihan for giving up their lesson and letting us work on science fair. BibliographyEhler, James T. â€Å"Baked Alaska. † Recipes for Sweet Comforts from the North Country. New York, New York: James T. Ehler, 2000. 143. , . . Print. Bellis, Mary. History of Ice Cream. Ed. Mary Bellis. about. com: Mary Bellis, 2011. 2. , . . Print. Bellis, Mary. History of the Oven. Ed. Mary Bellis. about. com: Mary Bellis, 2009. 3. , . . P rint. http://farm4. static. flickr. com/3269/3107121731_69336f5e82_o. jpg â€Å"Baked Alaska. † Alaska Wild Berry Cookbook: 270 Recipes from the Far North. Alaska: Alaska Northwest Books, 2012. Print. http://www. zagblog. ch/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/icecream. jpg

Choose a specific cultural policy(either national, regional,local..)in Essay

Choose a specific cultural policy(either national, regional,local..)in a particular place and period. Investigate its background,analyse its development and eva - Essay Example ‘Roots’ was a national television event of enormous educational value that necessarily showed the brutality of the institution of slavery. The made-for-television movie ‘The Burning Bed’ was credited with bringing about reform of existing spousal-abuse laws and included what some would call disturbingly violent scenes† (â€Å"ACLU Comments†, 2004). Hollywood success in America has demonstrated the great extent to which the film industry can function to increase the economy, define national opinions and sentiment and preserve cultural heritage while encouraging individual creativity. Although Britain saw a short pioneering period in the industry in the late 1800s and early 1900s, it has since fallen into some disrespect, proving unable to support its superior talent, frequently losing them to Hollywood or other markets and losing out on these positive benefits, although it has been working hard to foster increased interest and participation. In a n effort to increase the appeal of the British film industry, a number of policies and programs have been put in place over the years designed to encourage participation and support of the industry. However, there are areas in which film can cause significant damage to a society, in the introduction to too much violence, for instance, or in misleading political propaganda. This trivializing of important issues is most traceable in television as news programs filter out what they feel to be important – the breaking news story – against what they feel is old hat – long-term political issues such as social welfare, etc. â€Å"Television predominantly is a source of entertainment. If it also is the source of people’s news and involvement in public issues, there is a high risk that they will interpret that information within a framework provided by entertainment. If politics is like sport, for instance, it is fitting that

Critical Interpretation of Contemporary American History Essay

Critical Interpretation of Contemporary American History - Essay Example In the book The Sorrows of Empire Johnson claims that increasing militarization of society and global political power of the USA limits ideas of democracy and liberty established by the US Constitution. The same ideas are expressed by Sundhaussen (1998) and Welch (2004) who state that militarization of society bring the American nation more 'sorrows and grievances' then security and peace. Among them are internal cleavage, economic stress, and external pressure. The means of military power is often identical to the means of assuming power in the first place. Following Sundhaussen (1998): "The military is by its very nature a potential threat to democracy, but in well-established democracies civilian supremacy has generally been maintained, though there are dangers of excessive military influence" (329). According to Johnson (2004), since 2001 the USA government has increased military spending and increased its military presence abroad. Furthermore, just as the original conspiracy to seize power had civilian adherents, the coup that presages a return to civilian rule is instigated by an alliance of military and civilian elements. Johnson compares modern American Empire with the Roman Empire which had a great influence on the western world and its historical development. For instance, "Bush and his administration have worked zealously to expand the powers of the presidency at the expense of the other branches of government" (23). The development of military empire is a part of the American history which goes back to the 1950s-1960s. In stark contrast to the Carter Administration, the Reagan Administration has been remarkably consistent in its foreign policy agenda and its attempts to follow through on campaign pledges. It has sponsored the country's largest ever military buildup. It has generated the highest level of tension in U.S. Soviet relations since the 1962 missile crisis, resulting, for several years, in a hiatus in communication at virtually all levels on virtually all issues (Aylett and DeMarco 98-99). It has reinforced the various intelligence agencies, expanding both surveillance and paramilitary capabilities, reinstating the practice of surveillance of U.S. citizens at home and abroad, treating any agency of government and any private organization or profession as legitimate "cover," and introducing new measures to protect secrecy and punish whistleblowers the Reagan Administration has escalated U.S. military involvement in Central American conflicts continuously, mindless of overwhelming popular opposition to its policies at home and in allied countries of Europe and Latin America; mindless of multiple opportunities for negotiation and compromise; and mindless, finally, of the certainty of ignominious failure (Aylett and DeMarco 101). While it is clear that security interests have always loomed large in the shaping of U.S. policy, it is less clear how such interests are defined and limited. The concept of security is eminently elastic. Johnson (2004) underlines that "the paradoxical effect of this grand strategy is that it may prove more radically disruptive of world order than anything the terrorists of September 11, 2001 could have hoped to achieve on their

Strategic Sourcing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Sourcing - Assignment Example For instance, fluctuation of prices and global crisis are factors that create a lot of problems to running of companies via sourcing. Owing to this fact, employee and customer satisfaction are as well evident. From the article Boeing Faster, faster, faster in The Economist magazine, it is evident that most supplying companies show tendencies of consistently failing their customers. This result to demand for production services overwhelming many sourcing companies hence customers cancellation of business deals. This theme of in-sourcing is also evident in the article below: As much as outsourcing helps in saving on costs, it is associated with a lot of challenges which attributes the sourcing companies being unreliable. According to Wagner, & Boutellier (2002), small firms in the US lose the chance for supplier savings beyond $134 billion as a result of insufficient sourcing capabilities. It is thus evident that strategic sourcing is based on two factors which include operational and structural risks. On the operational risks, there are beneficial factors like price upgrading, cycle time reduction, upgraded inventory returns, transaction decrease, elevated services heights, inventory decrease and upgraded quality programs. On the structural risks, there are factors that include advanced profits, viable positioning, advanced reactions period to market state, employment of seller capability, outsourcing probability and authentic partnering with sellers. In order to ensure that companies receive great services, it is comparatively better to in source prod ucts and services. This will guarantee swift production and customer satisfaction at all times. This alternative however, limits the companies from obtaining diversified services and at times may be expensive to manage. There are some products/services that cannot be readily available within the company. Therefore, this implies that, companies may still find the

Evolution Process of Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Evolution Process of Writing - Essay Example The various subjects I took part in and as well jotted various concepts greatly influenced my thinking ability. The writing courses, in the beginning, demoralize a lot, but after a while, it brings the enthusiasm and determination in individuals thus qualifying it as one of the most adorable processes in the education system. The various subjects I took part in and as well jotted various concepts greatly influenced my thinking ability. The writing courses, in the beginning, demoralizes a lot, but after a while, it brings the enthusiasm and determination in individuals thus qualifying it as one of the most adorable processes in the education system. The grammar and punctuation skills are the best aspects of writing. They paved way for my understanding of my writing activity as well as knowing the center of focus in relation to my writing. Through the grammar, I have become an expert in the punctuation and observant in every single word I write in my work. Over the eight weeks period o f my writing lessons, I have learned to proofread as a writing technique. This has helped me a lot in making sure my written materials make sense for anyone who views it. Lastly, writing helps in the SQ3R strategies where every learned aspect is kept in the mind after a long period of time when it is put in writing.  On the first essay, I agree with my fellow colleague because being nervous is so normal while learning various aspects of writing. The second essay points out that there is a significant difference between high school writing and college education writing hence I also agree with the post.

Retailing and Wholesaling - Marketing assignment Essay

Retailing and Wholesaling - Marketing assignment - Essay Example A wholesaler is a crucial part of the distribution channel for many products particularly consumer goods and business supplies. Wholesaling intermediaries may be classified on the basis of ownership; some are owned by manufacturers, some are owned by retailers, and others are independently owned. In some instances, some wholesalers sell directly to the consumers especially when the consumer wants to buy a certain product or products in bulk. Wholesalers frequently resale both new and used goods to retailers and other wholesalers and may at times act as a broker in buying or selling products to such people. In most cases, wholesalers physically assemble products, break the bulk products acquired from manufacturers, sort and grade them, and finally repackage them in smaller quantities to be redistributed to retailers. They are involved in the transportation of goods from the place of manufacture to their warehouses from where they can be redistributed to retailers. Since the wholesaler is closer to the manufacturer, they are often responsible for giving out more information to their customers (retailers) about the products which they are selling them. Furthermore, if a product is found to be faulty, then the retailer will take that product back to the wholesaler either for it to be fixed or for it to be replaced. Since most retailers cannot afford to buy directly from the manufacturer in bulk, the wholesaler takes this responsibility and bears the risk of buying in bulk for redistribution in smaller quantities. Cant, M (3) says that a retailer may be seen as a business that focuses its marketing efforts on the final consumers with the intention of selling goods and services to them and this means that any business that sells a product or service to a final consumer, whether it is to a consumer in a shop, by mail, over the phone, door to door, or by means of a vending machine is

Land Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Land Law - Case Study Example If it is not registered (as some purchases before that date will not be), the legal owners will be listed on the document called the conveyance, which passes the property from one owner to another" (Joint Ownership of Property. 2008). However, the real value of the property lies in the second type of ownership, i.e. equitable or beneficial ownership as this ownership ensures the right to "the right to live in and use the property, and the right to share in the proceeds of any sale." Also, the equitable owner also can control a legal owner and decide on the sale of the property. As an immediate result of this factor, the buyer of the property will suffer much generally because it is normally difficult for the buyer to realise the existence of an equitable owner form the usual searches of the land or enquiries of the seller. As a result, the buyer will be bound to allow the beneficial owner after the business is over. (Joint Ownership of Property. 2008). It is also necessary that in the case of the legal and the beneficial owners of a property are different there arises a situation called trust, an arrangement formulated by a deed or written agreement. In the present case given for discussion, the two sisters Jennifer and her sister Clarissa conveyed the property as beneficial joint tenants. Thus, it is pertinent to have an idea of how such a property can be held in beneficial joint tenants which is one of the two ways of joint property, the other being the beneficial tenants in common. In the case of beneficial joint tenants, the joint owners are equally entitled to the property by which both share the rights to enjoy the benefits of the property together. Thus, the two sisters enjoy the unregistered country cottage property in Maple Leaf jointly. And, as it is evident, they do not enjoy separate shares but own the whole thing in common to each other and neither Jennifer nor Clarissa could enjoy separate share which each could sell or leave in a will. As it is clear in the case, Jennifer applies for the permission for the sale of her property, but immediately breaths her last. At her death, her application for the sale of propert y cannot succeed as in the case where "one person dies then the survivor becomes the owner of the whole property. This happens automatically without any further formality" (Joint Ownership - the methods). Also, let this be clear that Jennifer's case, at her death, in application for the sale of property cannot succeed as the law entails the person left the absolute ownership of the property. "If there is only one joint tenant left, he or she becomes outright owner of the property. Because no joint owner has a defined share, their interest in the property does not become part of their estate when they die, but simply disappears" (Joint Ownership of Property. 2008). However, we need to consider whether the particular case of Jennifer would succeed at the time of her application for sale of the property. The specifications of the case are that the property was an unregistered one conveyed to the sisters as beneficial joint tenants; the share of Jennifer in the deal was 160,000 of the total 280,000; and the children of Clarissa had Attention Hyperactivity Deficit

Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) - Essay Example This is the Nepal and alternative energy promotion centre (WECS, 2011). This implies compliance and easy to access the funds that will develop the project. Among the steps within this stage include; This is one of the critical and complex steps in the implementation process. It involves requesting and evaluating all the proposals presented. It also involves assembling a team, determination of the financing mechanism, development of the scope of work, specifying the performance criteria, addressing all the possible emerging issues to ensure compliance (Dixit, A. 2010) and develop the required proposal to the financiers. The team selected will ensure that the required community participation and literacy provisions are met to facilitate the success of the project. This will be based on the traditional spirit of the members of the Sandikhola village. The team should emphasize the use of non skilled volunteer to provide the much needed labor but the skilled personnel should be acquired from outside. In the personnel acquisition stage, skilled personnel from the respective villages should be given priority. Beside the team should designate a project champion to who can get the projects over barriers through determination, authority or sheer excitement. Among the notable funding agencies include; DFID Australian Aid, EU/ECHO , Norway (Norad) , Denmark (Danida), British Embassy (UKM), Nepal, SDC, Canada (CIDA), World Bank , Finland , ADB, Austria, Japan, Netherlands (NET/SNV) , JICA, Sweden (SWI/SIDA), USAID and Central Queensland University (ADB ,2010 ) The scope of work defines what the community wants out of the project. This is adopted as the heart for the request of the proposal. This comprises of the type o renewable energy system, considered location of the system, site requirements and the specifications of system performance. This

Taxation Issues Essay Example for Free

Taxation Issues Essay The individual income tax consists of taxes on compensation income (from employment), business income, and passive income (interests, dividends, royalties, and prizes). In 1998 compensation income tax rates were restructured into 6 bands with marginal rates ranging from 5% to 35%. Exemption levels are 20,000 pesos (about $400) for individual, and 32,000 pesos (about $640) for married couples. In 2000, the business income tax rate was lowered from 33% to 32%. The tax rate on passive income is 30%. For resident foreign corporations, after-tax profits remitted abroad are subject to a 15% tax, except for corporations registered with the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA), the Board of Investment (BOI), the Bases Conversion Development Authority, or operating in independent special economic zones (ecozones), all of which are eligible for special tax and customs incentives, exemptions and reductions designed to attract foreign, new, necessary and/or export-oriented foreign investmen t. The Omnibus Investment Code of 1987 lays out tax incentives administered by the BOI of the Department of Taxation and Development, and the annual Investment Priorities Plan (IPP) sets out the investment areas, national and regional, to which these incentives currently pertain. In 2002 the national list included export activities, industrial development and mining, agricultural/fishery production and processing, logistics, drugs and medicine, engineered products, environmental projects, IT services, Infrastructure, mass housing projects, R and D activities, social service, tourism, patriotic and documentary motion pictures and new projects with a minimum cost of $2 million. Special economic zones (SEZs) can be designated as export processing, free trade and/or information technology (IT) parks, each designation providing a schedule of tax holidays, exemptions from import duties on capital goods and raw material, and preferential income tax rates with more favorable treatment accorded pioneer industries over non pioneer or expanding companies. Taxes on transactions include a value-added tax (VAT) of 10%. For smaller businesses not registered with the VAT a percentage sales tax of 3% to 5% is applied, although higher for activities involving issues of public morality: cockpits are taxed 18%, caberets, 18% and jai-lai and racetracks, 30%. Excise taxes are imposed on selected commodities such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, jewelry and petroleum products. In addition, the government levies a variety of other taxes, including mining and petroleum taxes, residence taxes, a head tax on immigrants above a certain age and staying beyond a certain period, document stamp taxes, donor (gift) taxes, estate taxes, and capital gains taxes. A document stamp tax is charged on stock certificates, proofs of indebtedness, proofs of ownership, etc, and normally amount to .75% to 1% of the par or face value of the certificate. A progressive schedule of donor taxes begins with gifts above P 100,000 (about $18,500), and lays out seven bands (2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, and 15%) with the top marginal rate applying to gifts above P 10,000,000 (about $186,520). The progressive estate tax begins at P 200,000 (about $37,000) and lays out five bands (5%, 8%, 11%, 15% and 20%) up to P 10,000,000 (about $186,520). The capital gains tax is 6% on real property; 5% on gains of P 100,000 or less from the sale of stock not listed on the stock exchange, and 10% on gains over P 100,000. Some cities, such as Manila, levy their own wholesale and retail sales taxes. Government revenues in 2001 amounted to 14.8% of GDP, short of total expenditures and net lending for the year, which came to 19.1% of GDP, leaving a deficit of over 4% of GDP. The US State Department reports that the main factor underlying the deficit is inadequate revenue collections due to widespread tax evasion. Attempts by the Bureau of Internal Revenue to increase compliance have met with strong resistance. HMRC issues tax warning A warning has been sent to all consumers who are required to send in a tax return for 2009-10. In a message, HM Revenue Customs (HMRC) noted that the deadline for paper tax returns, which was October 31st, has now passed. Therefore, in order to avoid a penalty of  £100, all those yet to complete theirs must do so online. The organization pointed out that anyone who has not done this before will have to register for online filing by visiting its website. When they go through this process, they will be given a user ID and an activation code, which will be posted to them within seven working days. Once they have received this information, they will be able to file their returns. Meanwhile, in a word of advice to those who have used the system before , it added: Make sure that you have your user ID and password it can take seven working days to get replacements, so dont leave it to the last minute if you need them. The deadline for online self-assessments is Monday January 31st. Meanwhile, those who are unsure how to go about the process can get help and information on the HMRC website. Of course, there is also help for those who need to use an income tax calculator or another type of tax calculator. Such people can find these resources in various places on the web. In order to ensure they get their returns right, an income tax calculator or other form of tax calculator can be very helpful. Consumers are also advised to ensure that they save up enough money to pay the tax when the time comes, otherwise they may find themselves in financial difficulty. Students issued tax warning The vast majority of people who earn money are keen to ensure they do not pay too much income tax. For this reason, some use an income tax calculator or PAYE calculator to help them assess whether or not they have. Students may be among those who can benefit most from such activity, research conducted by one organization suggests. According to the Low Incomes Tax Reform Group (LITRG), around six million people are likely to now be receiving tax calculations having not paid the right tax under Pay As You Earn (PAYE), and students are particularly at risk of this. The reason for this, the organization claimed, is that such people can find that the system struggles to keep up with their working patterns. For example, undergraduates may be working in several jobs at once, frequently moving between roles, doing irregular work with agencies or be involved in a sandwich course during which they work for a year. Students are advised to keep on top of their income deductions, which may involve using an income tax calculator or PAYE calculator. Not only may mistakes mean they overpay, but they may also result in such people paying too little. In such cases, they could be hit with an unexpected bill at a later date. With this in mind, LITGR issued advice to students. For example, it stated: If you start a new job without a P45, but your former employer later gives you one you can still give it to your new employer for them to adjust your tax code. But otherwise, you might need to keep an eye on your pay slips and contact HMRC to chase up processing of your P46 to make sure you get put back on a cumulative code if it doesnt appear to be done automatically. Earlier this year, HM Revenue Customs revealed that a number of people had either under paid or overpaid tax and it sent out correspondence to inform these individuals of the errors. An insight into Joint Ventures and Tax issues If you have had the chance to interact with a London accountant online and have discussed the kind of potential that different enterprises have when they are in the start-up stage, he/she would inevitably point to a joint venture as one that allows for the best capitalization on research development tax credits as well as the best way to reap in profits while running the least amount of risk. Partnership accounting too, according to most chartered tax accountants, is easier to monitor and account for, rather than solo enterprises or massive corporate public entity firms. However, this particular category of entrepreneurship is on the decline – which is more courtesy of lack of knowledge and joint venture tax issues, than failure of the whole model in the business arena. So what exactly is a joint venture as far as tax issues and accounting for partnerships is concerned? Well, for starters, it is not very different from a solo investment enterprise. The only fact here is that the firm or venture has two or more people as investors, each of whom have a share in the revenue as well as profits and losses that the venture accrues during its runtime. The usual joint venture tax issues that most investors encounter is with the Tax ID numbers from IRS as well as legal agreements. While the legal agreement can double up as the word on which the investors decided to distribute and share their revenues from the venture, it is also required during partnership accounting measures as well as for varied detailed statistics and formalities for clinical accounting for partnerships and firms. The taxes from employee salaries are called withholding taxes, and the taxes levied on Medicare and security is also to be deducted from the firms employees. Often, a conflict of interest arrives, when a person is both an employee as well as a fellow investor in the joint venture – tax issues need to be sorted out for these situations too. This is exactly why joint ventures tax issues allied with the same is considered more complex for partnership accounting rather than for solo enterprises. Moreover, accounting for partnerships often need professional and veteran chartered tax accountants for the job – exactly where professional London accountants come into the picture. While ad-hoc accounting for partnerships almost always is recipe for disaster, professional accounting can maximize both your profits as well as your research and development tax credits. So if you are an investor and your fellow entrepreneurs are not willing to hire a professional London accountant for the sake of savings and cost-cutting measures. For the kind of money you will save with the help of a professional chartered tax accountant on accounting for partnerships, you will have enough capital to start another joint venture sans tax issues as well!

Difference Between Single & Married People Essay Example for Free

Difference Between Single Married People Essay Today, there are a lot of significant numbers of people who are married and some are single. This has changed their lives and gives differences between their lives. In this essay, I am going to compare and contrast the differences between single people’s lives and married people’s lives in their lifestyle, companionship, and responsibility. Some things in life are going to be good, regardless of whether you are single or married, and some things will be the opposite. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. The two areas that differ in married and single life are compromise and sharing of possessions. Lifestyle is the first difference between single and married people’s lives. Single people have much more privacy in their life. They are not bothered by anybody in their home. Nobody will demand that they sleep late, not watch movies too much and so on. And, single people can live a free life too. They can spend their time with their friends anywhere and anytime they want. In contrast, married people are bothered by their partner. They have to take care of their children and their partner. They cannot live a free life. If they want to go out with their friends, they must get permission from their partner first before they go. Married people are busier compared to single people, because married people have to take care of their children and their partner, unlike single people who do not have children and partner. Companionship is the next difference between single and married people’s lives. A husband depends on his wife, and a wife depends on her husband. Support is easily achieved from their partners, parents and their children, unlike single people who do not depend on anybody in this world. They cannot trust anyone to share their secrets and other important parts of their life except their parents. Support can be achieved only from their parents and their friends. Read more:Â  Married vs Single Responsibility is the last difference between single and married people’s lives. Married people have to manage their money and expenses gently and economically every day. They are also responsible for raising their children and guiding their families. If they cannot guide their family in the right way, their family can be broken and maybe ruined their lives. Married people are also responsible for managing their time. They have to spend their time with their children, husband or wife every day. In contrast, people who remain single do not have a schedule, they do not have any children or partners to guide and they are less responsible with their money and daily expenses. In conclusion, lifestyle, companionship, and responsibility are the three main differences between single people and married people’s lives. So is single life comfort and married life pleasure? Some people prefer to be single, others prefer marriage. Although there are reasonable advantages to both lifestyles, both lifestyles can be equally rewarding.

Hippotherapy and Cerebral Palsy

Hippotherapy and Cerebral Palsy Intervention Analysis Background Jane Walters is a five year old girl and has a diagnosis of left sided spastic hemiplegia, a form of Cerebral Palsy. Jane has two older sisters who attend horse riding lessons at their local stables. Jane has recently expressed an interest in joining them to her parents. However her parents are worried that because of her diagnosis she will not be able to keep up with her siblings. However Jane is very independent child and she doesnt believe that she is any different from other children of her age. Diagnosis Cerebral Palsy (CP) refers to non-progressive conditions characterised by impaired voluntary movement or posture, and resulting from prenatal developmental malformations or postnatal CNS damage (Reed, 2013, pp. 38-47). According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2008), it is highly likely that a child with CP will have other medical disorders such as; cognitive impairments, seizures, delayed growth and development. Spastic syndromes such as Jane’s occur in more than 70 percent of CP cases. Spastic hemiplegia is a type of CP that typically affects the arm and hand on one side of the body, but can also include the leg. . The spasticity creates a state of resistance against any range of motion, this resistance ultimately increases with increasing speed of that movement (Reed, 2013, pp. 38-47). Children with spastic hemiplegia will generally walk later and on tiptoe because of high heel tendons. Often the arm and leg on the child’s affected side are shorter and thinner (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke 2008). Impact of Right Hemisphere Brain Damage The primary cause of CP is damage to white matter of the brain this is often caused by abnormal brain development, a bleed on the brain, or brain damage caused by a lack of oxygen in the brain, generally caused by a difficult birth. Jane has left sided spastic hemiplegia, indicating that damage to the brain has occurred on the right hemisphere. It was felt important to consider additional complications related to right sided brain damage to ensure we are aware of Ellie’s level of functioning physically, cognitively and behaviourally. Those that may relate to Ellie’s case are listed below, however, it is important to recognise that each case must be treated individually; the symptoms and severity will vary for each individual. Attention Difficulty concentrating on a task or focusing on what is said or seen. Perception Visual perception deficits causing a person to have difficulty perceiving and processing any information on the left visual field (left-sided neglect). For example, individuals with right hemisphere damage may have difficulty with reading words on the left side of a page, eating food on the left side of their plate, or acknowledging the left side of their body Reasoning and problem solving: Difficulty identifying that there is a problem and generating solutions. Memory: Difficulty recalling previously learned information and learning new information. Social communication Difficulty interpreting abstract language such as metaphors, making inferences, and understanding jokes; and problems understanding nonverbal cues and following the rules of communication Organisation: Difficulty with systematically arranging information and planning, which is often reflected in communication difficulties, such as trouble telling a story with events in the right order, maintaining a topic during conversation. Insight Difficulty recognizing problems and the impact on daily functioning. Orientation: Difficulty recalling the date, time, or place. The individual may also be disoriented to self (ASHA 2014). Medical Considerations for Therapeutic Riding People with cerebral palsy have difficulty coordinating and producing purposeful, functional movements. Some people have too much muscle tone, such as those with spasticity. Their muscles hold their limbs in rather stiff postures and it is difficult to relax these muscles. Thus, the rider cannot move his limbs easily except in the direction the spastic muscles pull. Other types of tone abnormalities include fluctuating tone, as seen in athetoid cerebral palsy and hypotonia, or too little tone. Tone is an elusive thing to quantify. Using treatment techniques to temporarily make tone more normal does not suddenly result in normal, coordinated movement patterns. In fact, increased tone may be the result of pathologic weaknesses in other muscle groups coupled with the normal human desire to move. Muscle fibers are known to change over time, resulting in increasing, age-related difficulty in maintaining posture. It may be true that abnormal tone, especially spasticity, is an abnormal response to normal sensation, such as touch and movement sensation. Orthopedic problems occur in people with cerebral palsy, perhaps partly because of the interaction of the abnormal neurologic system with the muscles, joints and soft tissues. The abnormal, usually asymmetrical pull of spastic muscles coupled with lack of normal movement and weightbearing can result in progressive scoliosis and dislocating hips. Other joints, such as wrists, elbows, knees and ankles, can lose flexibility and range of motion. Despite these factors, the rhythmic motion, shape, warmth and inherently motivating quality of the horse can be helpful to people with cerebral palsy throughout their lives. Therapeutic riding can facilitate cognitive and sensorimotor development in childhood, help develop a sense of responsibility, self-confidence and fair play in adolescence and provide life-long recreation and sport. It can do all this while stimulating the good posture, balance and flexibility needed for functional independence off the horse. Riding works best for maintaining range of motion and joint flexibility if a well-aligned, correct posture on the horse is always a goal. There is no substitute for a horse with good, symmetric movement. Many riders with cerebral palsy can achieve normal balance, posture and movement on a horse if the instructor takes a long, slow approach, focusing on posture and alignment. These are not therapy goals. Good posture, hands-free balance and a following seat are prerequisites to riding with ease and comfort for the rider and the horse. Riding sessions for people with cerebral palsy should never result in increased tone and discomfort. Ask the rider (family member or personal care assistant) how he feels after the session, when hes at home. Are the muscles relaxed or tight? If spasticity is worse after the session, decrease the amount of stimulation. Focus on less impulsion, more stretching and relaxation, more straight-line work and fewer circles. Use a horse with a wider base and a smoother walk. Offer an opportunity to sit and rest after dismounting. Try a saddle with a suede or synthetic cover so the riders seat and legs will stick to the saddle better, which will increase his stability and decrease stress. Recent articles by Ruth DismukeBlakely, SLP/CCC, in AHA News and NARHA News, indicate that the movement of the horse in hippotherapy sessions can increase the quantity, quality and volume of vocalization in the rider. For children with cerebral palsy, the horse is a wonderful motivation for speech, while the horses movement can improve the coordination of breathing, swallowing and sound production. The horse naturally motivates children with cerebral palsy to move, explore and touch. Using the horse as a large, gentle, rhytiunic and predictably moving gross-motor platform, where the child is invited and assisted to explore, can be even more useful than learning to ride. Instructors can encourage movement and hopefully disconnect it from the fear of failure. The result is self-confidence and courage on and off the horse. The rider with cerebral palsy benefits from advance preparation in many areas. Stretching before getting on the horse, as recommended by a physical therapist, can reduce the warm-up time on the horse. When practicing walk-halt transitions, the instructor or therapist can use: Prepare to walk, Prepare to halt, Get ready to whoa. These preparatory phrases allow the rider to prepare or set the posture needed to accomplish the task. If the rider has decreased or asymmetric range of motion at the hips and knees, select the horse that accommodates the problem so the rider can sit easily in good alignment without being pulled to one side. If the hip is partially dislocated (subluxed), the type of horse is essential. The lack of range of motion, spasticity, the horses natural shape and movement can all potentially worsen the subluxation. In general, the rider with cerebral palsy who has orthopedic problems at the hips or spine may benefit greatly from consultation with a physical therapist who can assist the instructor in creating an appropriate riding program. -Liz Baker, PT, NARHA Medical Commitfee Chairman http://www.cpparent.org/hippotherapy/articles/cp.htm Bissell, C. 2015. Cerebral Palsy and Therapeutic Riding [Online]. Available at: http://www.cpparent.org/hippotherapy/articles/cp.htm [Accessed: 29 April 2015]. Hippotherapy Hippotherapy is a form of physical, occupational and speech therapy that uses equine (horse) movement to develop and enhance neurological and physical functioning by channelling the movement of the horse. Hippotherapy is built on the concept that the individual’s neuromuscular development is enhanced when their body makes adjustments to the gait, tempo, rhythm, repetition and cadence of a horse’s movement. What is hippotherapy? In today’s world, children with cerebral palsy often benefit from several traditional treatments and therapies designed to greatly enhance his or her abilities, and by extension, his or her quality of life. Some therapies – such as physical therapy – are commonly deployed for those with mobility and function impairment. But others, like equine therapy – also known as hippotherapy – take an unconventional path in the effort to increase a child’s physical strength and cognitive capabilities. Based on the concept that humans with physical challenges can benefit from both learned and spontaneous reactions while riding a horse, hippotherapy was conceived in the 1960s and used primarily in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland as a companion to more established treatments. Hippotherapy was recognized in the United States in the 1980s as a therapy that not only helps patients with neuromuscular dysfunction increase physical strength and cognitive ability, but also offers the individual a chance to take advantage of an enjoyable activity that contributes to a positive therapeutic experience. Hippotherapy is a form of physical, occupational and speech therapy that uses equine movement to develop and enhance neurological and physical functioning by channeling the movement of the horse. Hippotherapy is not to be confused with therapeutic horseback riding, in which individuals are taught specific riding skills. Hippotherapy is built on the concept that the individual and variable gait, tempo, rhythm, repetition and cadence of a horse’s movement can influence human neuromuscular development in humans. Horseback riding triggers a series of complex physical and mental reactions; such as making physical adjustments to maintain proper alignment on the horse. Riders must also plan movements to maintain balance on the horse, and be able to interact with the animal. Hippotherapy, through equine movement, works by further developing physical and cognitive abilities, including: Strength Control Balance Posture Endurance Coordination Sensory integration Understanding of visual cues What are the benefits of hippotherapy? Hippotherapy can help children with cerebral palsy on several fronts. Interacting with the animal can lift a child’s spirits emotionally and psychologically while also providing valuable physical exercise as the child learns how to ride the horse properly. A horse’s gait has three-dimensional movement—equine movement–similar to a human that helps a child plan physical responses to the horse’s movement. Horeseback riding requires subtle adjustments and positioning to maintain proper balance and posture. Physical benefits include: Improved gross motor skills Trunk core strength Control of extremities Improved postural symmetry Reduced abnormal muscle tone Respiratory control Cognitive benefits include: Improved attention Visual coordination Sensory input Tactile response Improved timing and grading of responses Improved ability to express thoughts, needs Psychological benefits include: Enjoyable interactions with the animal Opportunities for social interaction Improved self-esteem When is hippotherapy advised? There is no specific age, or point in a child’s therapy, that dictates when or if a child would benefit from hippotherapy. Children as young as two years old, and teens, have benefitted significantly from hippotherapy. The decision to employ hippotherapy will be based on several factors, including whether a child’s specific physical and cognitive challenges could be improved by this therapy, and whether mitigating physical and cognitive conditions exist that would preclude a child’s interaction with a horse. Because it is not likely to be among a child’s core therapies, hippotherapy is unlikely to be covered by many medical insurance plans. How is hippotherapy performed? A successful hippotherapy program incorporates the multi-dimensional movement of a horse with that of a human. The therapist will likely begin any course of treatment with an assessment of the child’s physical, cognitive and psychological abilities to gage whether hippotherapy is appropriate for a child, and what accommodations should be made if a child cannot sit on the horse in a conventional manner. Once a therapist has determined that hippotherapy is appropriate for a child, he or she will explain how sessions will unfold. Additionally, a child and his or her parents will also be given detailed instructions regarding how to physically interact with the horse, including: How to safely mount and dismount a horse How to utilize equipment, such as saddles What to expect regarding the horse movement After a child mounts the horse, it is the therapist’s job to strictly monitor and control the horse while the child is riding horseback. The therapist will walk alongside the horse to direct equine movement and modify movement in a way that is safe for the child. As the therapist monitors the horse, he or she is also monitoring the child to watch for changing physical reactions such as balance, control, strength and range of motion skills. Changes in physical reactions from the child are considered positive because when a child responds naturally to shifts in gait from the horse, it not only builds physical strength, but also vital connectivity in the brain. Because hippotherapy is practiced by physical, occupational and speech and language therapists, activities and goals in therapy may vary. Physical therapists tend to focus on improving gross motor skills, balance, and strength; occupational therapists focus on sensory processing, vestibular and proprioceptive issues, and speech therapists focus on communication Therapists will monitor the progress of a child, and make modifications to the child’s plan of treatment as needed. Where is hippotherapy performed? Hippotherapy generally takes place at specialized institutions, generally in a horse-farm setting. Because the children will eventually ride the horses, and they are encouraged to interact with the animals, special attention is paid to ensuring the environment is stress-free, friendly, and supportive for children and their families. Some programs are dedicated entirely to providing hippotherapy programs all year to the exclusion of other activities, and others will have occasional or seasonal programming during certain times of the year. Regionally, it can be challenging to find nearby programs because many horse farms are located in rural communities. Who provides hippotherapy? Those who practice hippotherapy are most often physical, occupational or speech and language therapists, and have met the rigorous educational and certification requirements to practice within those disciplines. See physical therapist, occupational therapist, and speech and language pathologists. In some cases, a hippotherapy practitioner may work closely with a professional horse trainer. The American Hippotherapy Association offers a multi-level educational program that aims to educate aspiring practitioners with a foundation of knowledge regarding how to work with both patients and horses. Certification in hippotherapy is open to physical, occupational and speech therapists that have practiced for three years in their field, and 100 hours of hippotherapy, through the AHA. Hippotherapy Clinical Specialty Certification can be obtained after the applicant sits for the HPCS examination. More information can be obtained at the AHA’s website, which also includes a list of hippotherapy educators and certified practitioners. The AHA’s educational and certification program addresses several concepts, including: Physical attributes of the horse Tacking and untacking of the horse Natural gait of the horse Unsoundness of horse movement Links between horse and human movement Emergency procedures and safety practices Selecting appropriate exercises Treatment plan effectiveness Creating quality and beneficial movements Relationship between treatment and functional outcomes HPCS certification is valid for five years; practitioners must then undergo a re-certification process. During this process, applicants must either retake the HPCS examination, or provide written evidence of 120 hours in additional coursework. Fifty percent of the work must be hippotherapy-based, 25 percent must be related to hippotherapy, and 25 percent must be related to the applicant’s professional discipline. Hippotherapy practitioners, depending on their professions, may utilize equine movement in different ways. Physical therapists may focus on cultivating strength ad balance in large muscles of the core, legs and arms; occupational therapists may focus on fine motor skills, cognitive functioning and sensory integration as it relates to everyday activities; and speech pathologists may focus on communication strategies that support speech and language, signing or other modes of communication. http://cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/treatment/therapy/hippotherapy/ CerebralPalsy.org, 2015. Hippotherapy and Cerebral Palsy | Horse | CerebralPalsy.org [Online]. Available at: http://cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/treatment/therapy/hippotherapy/ [Accessed: 29 April 2015].

Privacy and the Internet Essay -- Computers Technology Papers

Privacy and the Internet The Internet provides a wealth of sources for information, products, and services of all types, making it a convenient place for consumers to research topics and make purchases. Although Internet users know that some personal data will be required to make a purchase, they are often unaware of the personal data that can be collected without their knowledge by simply visiting a Web page or reading e-mail. This paper addresses some of the ways unauthorized personal information has been and is being collected and steps that can be taken to prevent or avoid this collection. To make an online purchase, an Internet user must provide a certain amount of personal information to the vendor. This information usually includes the user's name, address, telephone number, e-mail address, and credit card data. There have been many reported cases of security failures at online vendors of products and services. Because of this publicity, most Internet users are aware that there is a potential for the information they provide to be exposed to the world whether by human error, careless security practices by a vendor, or a successful attack by a hacker. However, most users are not aware of the amount of personal information that can be collected without their consent when they do such ordinary things as visiting a Web page, opening a document, or reading an e-mail message. How can personal information be collected without the user's knowledge? Information about an Internet user can be collected in many ways, including the underlying protocol of the Web, â€Å"cookies†, banner advertisements,"Web bugs", and hi-tech "toys". A user may also provide information to an online vendor to reduce annoyances. Almost every ... ... Clients Susceptible to 'Wire-Tapping'. February 5, 2001. www.internetnews.com/dev-news/article/0,,10_579871,00.html. Accessed: October 30, 2001. Lemos, Robert. ZDNet News. No easy way to exterminate 'Web bugs'. August 31, 2000. techupdate.zdnet.com/techupdate/stories/main/0,14179,2622610,00.html Accessed: October 30, 2001. Sullivan, Jennifer and Jones, Christopher. Wired News. How Much Is Your Playlist Worth? November 3, 1999. http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,32258,00.html. Accessed: October 31, 2001. Vendor sites Intelytics products. www.intelytics.com. Updated: Unknown. Accessed: October 10, 2001, X10 pop-up. www.x10.com/x10ads1.htm. Updated: Unknown. Accessed: October 9, 2001. Netscape. Persistent Client State - HTTP Cookies. home.netscape.com/newsref/std/cookie_spec.html. Updated: 1999. Accessed: October 30, 2001.

The Scarlet Letter Essay -- Literary Analysis, Hawthorne

The aspect of Nature in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter seems to have been characterized to readers with having a mixed blessing. Rather than illustrating Nature in the typical Puritanical manner of the 1600’s, that Nature is downright evil, tying Nature to the â€Å"Black Man,† Hawthorne uses a different approach. Instead, Nature is fairly two-sided in that it portrays destructive as well as somewhat therapeutic powers. The text reveals the positive attributes of Nature that the Puritans overlook or fear. Conversely, the text shows that aspects of Nature that help mankind also harm him. The duality of Nature mirrors the complex inner feelings and dual nature of the novel’s characters. Nature represents the paradoxical juxtaposition of both good and evil in man, by showing both good and evil attributes in itself. Ultimately, Nature reveals man's inherent inability to be pure. By presenting a number of aspects of Nature that are beneficial to man, the text manages to discount the one-sided Puritanical view of Nature as an outright evil influence. Nature provides both Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale with some feelings of renewal and relief by giving each a sense of freedom from the oppression of society. For example, Hester, by living in a "lonesome cottage, by the sea shore,† (166) a place representative of Nature, is able to invoke such thoughts "dared to enter no other dwelling in New England† (166). Her isolation from society amidst the liberating influence of Nature, releases her from the restrictions that determine what is acceptable to believe, allowing her mind to roam "as freely as the wild Indian in his woods"(203). Her "estranged point of view," her "fate and fortunes", in addition to her homely cottage by the se... ...he way her mother does is best. Also in her pursuit of truth, she fervently desires Dimmesdale to stand with her and Hester in the sunlight, unknowingly requesting that her father reveal the truth about the bond between them all. Her quest for truth eventually leads her to "pledge that she [will] grow up amid human joy and sorrow"(251), ceasing to "forever do battle with the world"(251), and instead "be a woman in it"(251). The novel culminates its message of duality by showing the lawless child of nature embrace, in part, the morality of society. In order to live truth, Pearl must hold on to her wild roots, while accepting a civilized future. She must free herself from the isolation of New England, but not give herself over to the complete lawlessness of the forest. She seems on the verge of living the message of the novel by accepting the duality of her nature.

Minorities and Policing :: essays research papers

Minorities and Policing: Unfairly Treated   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If we look at the past, we can see that there is no warm tradition of community cooperation between the African-American community and law enforcement. Minorities and Policing is an important topic because it deals with issues pertaining to how minorities are treated by the police. Racial profiling and social injustice are important areas when dealing with unfair treatment of minorities. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How minorities feel about police 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Employing minorities 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unfair treatment of minorities within the legal system This review of the information on minorities and policing focuses on these three issues. How Minorities Feel About Police   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Dr. Carl S. Taylor, the relationship between minority groups and police in the United States has historically been strained. Some cities have a deep and bitter history of bias and prejudice interwoven in their past relationships. The feeling in many communities today is that the system pits law enforcement as an occupying army versus the neighborhood. Dr. Taylor wrote about easing tensions between police and minorities, but stated â€Å"If there is any good news in the current situation, it is that the history of this strain has found the 1990’s ripe for change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is considerable evidence that minorities and police are not in agreement on many issues, and the blame is being shifted from all parties involved. The police feel that they are fair in their treatment of minorities, but the evidence in many instance prove otherwise. When we view articles on the arrests of minorities versus whites, you will notice a variation in how various nationalities are treated. When reading the newspaper, you will see the photograph of a minority with previous criminal history and other issues outlined. This to me is done to paint a picture that shows the accused is already known for violating the law.

Human Organ Shouldn’t Ligalize Essay

The sale of organs means that organs are removed from inside the body for the purpose of commercial transactions. Although the sales of human organs have been done since long ago, and there are many claims and proposal to make it legal, a lot of oppositions are against this idea. * Money the purpose Considering the poor status of most donors, one of the primary stated reasons for organ selling is to pay off debt. Those who are poorest are frequently seen as more reliable targets for transplant tourists because they are the most in need of money. It is said by the other side that legalizing the organ sale can help people who are in need to continue to survive. But at the same time, it also increases money desire for many poor people. For example, in 2007 a man in UK tried to sell his kidney online for 24,000 pounds in order to pay off his gambling. * Increase crimes and black market Legality of the organ sale would even encourage organ theft through murder and neglect sick individuals for a financial gain. There are many case like beautiful girls or handsome men trying to attract someone and flirting around with them until they agree to go with n end up waking without kidneys. Another example, Few families would turn down the opportunity to receive compensation (ensure financial stability or the dead is the main earner), so they may charge the hospital the same price, or they will turn to black market for higher price. Besides, there might be some criminal who break the promise to pay the donor higher amount for the organ than it was actually paid out or even escape without payment. * Imbalance between the rich and the poor Payment for organ is likely to take unfair advantage of the poor. Even if organ trade is legalized, it is still the third – world wealthy people who can afford the organ for transplantation. And the poor people are still vulnerable and unfortunate because they are the one who always make donation. Moreover, it is injustice to give pure organ to those rich people who usually spending lot of money on drinking, eating, party, and cause the disease by themselves. * Health: The  WHO  first declared organ trade illegal in 1987 *Affect to living donor Although some medical research proved that there are not many effects on the donors with their left organs. However, a question is asked that if it is not so important, why people are born with both organ, for example kidneys or livers. Kidneys or livers do not regenerate as the other human products like blood or sperm. WHO reports has shown that there is decrease in human well being, especially, those who make living on physical labor. 96% of donors regret selling their organs. *Affect to recipient It is risky to introduce trafficking diseased organ to recipients because those donors often comes from the poor population where they don’t live well and receive good health care. There is a possibility of 1:18 to acquire HIV from such transplant. The diseases don’t show up on the screen of the analysis probably because they just start within three weeks before the donor’s death. One more thing is the change of recipients’ body rejecting of organ result from different blood type or genetic make-up. * Ethical concern *Violate human right The state often denies individuals the right to do certain things with their bodies because they may not make good decision for themselves. Furthermore, any procedure which tends to commercialize human organs or to consider them as items of exchange or trade must be considered morally unacceptable, because to use the body as an object is to violate the dignity of the human person. World Health Organization said that the transplantation promotes health but transplantation tourism violates human right. Organs can be bought and sold arbitrarily. *Corruption There is corruption in healthcare system and government and it sometimes turn to organ trafficking. For instance, In India, a patient unaware that his kidney transplant procedure took place and was asked to pay after that. For example, in 2006 China made selling of executed prisoners’ organs and claimed that those prisoners had filed agreement and permission, but still the Chinese officials are suspected of these corrupted activities that the profit might go to them not the donors or their families. * Religion For the religious view, body and soul are one entity and very valuable that cannot be treated as property and make business. Traditionally, Muslim believes that oppose donation from human living and deceased donors because the human body is sacred thing from God so any part of the body must not be separated in life or death. Chinese customs call for people to be buried or cremated with the body complete orginally. One die-hard superstition has it that if an organ is taken from a body after death, the person in question will be reborn with a handicap in that organ in his or her next life. Nowadays, trade in human organs is illegal in all countries except Iran. Before, India and Philippine used to legalize this activity too but it turns out that they ban it later on, and it is clear enough why it couldn’t be practiced. There must be many complicated issues occurred. Solution The solutions have been put forward to both increase the amount of legally available organs and stop the flow of illegal organ trafficking around the world. One policy is â€Å"presumed consent†. (Successful in Brazil, US, several nations of Europe and increase the amount of organs available), patient can choose not to donate by submitting document. Worldwide, the trend has been move toward increased regulation of organ trading internationally.

Stop Small Hands from Working in Factories

Like other problems India facing today, biz. Poverty. Illiteracy, malnutrition etc, child labor is also a big threat to the nation and it Is practices in many parts of the country. Though gobos, both central as well as states, have been pushing for the various polices/programmer to cease ‘child-labor', the success story so far Is not so good if we see UN reports. At present, to deal with ‘child labor' problem,we have Child Labor prevention Act, some policies like Right To Education etc, but due to poor infrastructure and absence of proper blue print the policies remain on paper.Education is still distinct dream for many children. Gobo schools are poorly funded, they do not have required number of teachers and so do not student, they do not have science laboratories, rand-day meal Is not provided in many schools. Some schools do not even have toilet facilities which Is the reason of low number of female students. And the ‘child labor' is practices mostly in those par ts of the country, from where schools possess above properties. But to my mind lack of availability of education is not the only reason of ‘child labor' other than poverty.Apart from poverty and illiteracy, idealism, migration, malnutrition too play a very Important role to Increase the number of child labors. Most of the child labors from our country are Dallas, marginal's and alienated. Along with being dalai they are poor as well as illiterate. Also many child labors are baggers' who do not have their own shelter (unfortunately, in India,there are no laws which will cover baggers). So the number of child laborers are more in those parts of the country where idealism is practices strongly and they have more number of industries.For example, states like Arioso, Shorthand are resource, minerals rich so there Is greater number of industries, and also idealism Is practices more in these states, hence result of which Is more number of child labors. Another ex Is of Tamil Nadia, w here idealism is practices and hence we can find more child labors working in bad safety conditions of fire works industries. Just like idealism, migration is again another reason p, which couples with poverty, force children to work as labor to fulfill their basic livelihoods. So In a country like India, which Is such a diverse country, problems also show verse nature.Hence approach to every single problem to solve should be Inclusive. So to stop child labor, only RET or Child labor prevention Act are not sufficient but gobos should also look at the implementation of the other important schemes like MANAGER, various pension schemes(including students scholarship) etcÃ'› they have to work to stop migration, they have to stop malnutrition, hunger by creating necessary Infrastructure to deal with, increasing efficacy In systems and creating awareness among people. Stop Small Hands from Working in Factories By Similarities Like other problems India facing today, biz. Every, illiterac y, malnutrition etc, child labor is also a big threat to the nation and it is practices in many parts of the various policies/programmer to cease ‘child-labor', the success story so far is not so have science laboratories, mid-day meal is not provided in many schools. Some schools do not even have toilet facilities which is the reason of low number of female too play a very important role to increase the number of child labors. Most of the child labors from our country are dalais, marginal's and alienated. Along with being dalai they are poor as well as illiterate.Also many child labors are ‘baggers' who do not have their own shelter (unfortunately, in India,there are no laws which there is greater number of industries, and also idealism is practices more in these states, hence result of which is more number of child labors. Another ex is of Tamil So in a country like India, which is such a diverse country, problems also show diverse nature. Hence approach to every singl e problem to solve should be inclusive. MANAGER, various pension schemes(including students scholarship) etc. , they have necessary infrastructure to deal with, increasing efficacy in systems and creating

Obsession with Celebrities

From Charlie Sheen to the Queen; we follow them, we love them. But has our obsession with celebrities gone too far? So ask yourself: why are we â€Å"infected† with this viral disease? Does celebrity worship syndrome affect us? What type of celebrity do we classify as a one we would follow? Why has the Twitter revolution changed our views of celebrities? And most importantly, who do we blame for our addictive behaviour? We must turn away from our celebrity driven life and be our own mind controllers. So why are we â€Å"infected† with this viral disease? Let us be honest with ourselves, we have all imagined what it would be like to be a celebrity; living someone else’s life. We were built and programmed to like what we think is â€Å"cool† or â€Å"attractive† which are also words we use to describe celebrities. We see them all the time in films, on television and in advertisements all around the world. We acknowledge them as if they were â€Å"perfect†. But this is not true, yes of course they look and act differently when they are in the public eye but they are not like that in private. We see this when the world’s best golfer; Tiger Woods cheats on his wife with 12 different women. This shows that they are not perfect as we imagined, but flawed like us. Celebrity worship syndrome or CWS is a scientifically proven obsessive-addictive disorder. It can affect anyone who is over-exposed to the media surrounding the lives of celebrities. Psychologists have indicated that there are three types of CWS. The first is â€Å"Entertainment-social†. This occurs when a group of people watch or speak about celebrities. The second CWS disorder is â€Å"Intense-personal†. This is shown when people share compulsive feelings about celebrities. The last CWS disorder is â€Å"Borderline-pathology†. How does all of this happen? It is more common for women to â€Å"copy† the image of celebrities. For example, regular women can see what the stars are wearing and often find tips on how to buy cheap knockoffs of their outfits. This concerns people who have little control of their behaviours and fantasies they have on the topic of celebrities. According to research conducted in the United Kingdom, there is a relation between celebrity worship syndrome and other mental disorder. This is a mildly-serious condition that can be reversed if professional help and advice is taken. Who do we find attractive and consider worth following? It's not surprising that gorgeous people wind up famous. What's less obvious is that famous people often wind up gorgeous: The more we see a certain face, the more our brain likes it, whether or not it's actually beautiful. Thanks to what is known as â€Å"the exposure effect,† says James Bailey, a psychologist at George Washington University, the pleasurable sensation that is set off when we see a certain celebrity â€Å"begins to create a neurochemical groove,† making her image easier for our brains to process. This begins to explain why Jennifer Aniston, not exactly a classic cover girl was again named one of People magazine's 50 â€Å"most beautiful† in the world this year. Twitter, a world wide phenomenon. But why and how has the revolution of Twitter changed our views of celebrities? Before Twitter existed, all we had to connect with celebrities were magazines and television. But now celebrities have found a new way to communicate with us. Through Twitter, they can tell us what it is that they are currently doing and share their personal thoughts on anything. For example, Justin Bieber tweeted ‘Come home to me is such a great song. I thought I would do a little something with it. ’ But there have been studies which suggest that celebrities who do not use Twitter have a higher chance of prolonging their careers. In my opinion, this would be a fair statement because celebrities who do not use Twitter will live a more private life under less stress and so find it easier to keep their career going for as long as possible. Celebrities like Katy Perry who does not use Twitter has more privacy and less stress unlike those who constantly use Twitter like Justin Bieber are likely to experience an invasion of privacy. If we all were asked: who do we blame for being so attached to celebrities? We would all blame the media for publicizing the lives of the famous. But what we are not realizing is that we only have ourselves to blame for this behaviour. We push the media for more information which we then indulge ourselves in. We see this all the time when people contact news agencies and press aggressively for as much information as they could possible get. It has also been suggested by many that celebrities that are getting rich and famous forfeit their right to privacy. This could potentially be a disastrous decision that the celebrities make as they most certainly will lose their privacy and spend the rest of their lives under constant pressure from the media and the general public. Can we change our lives and turn away from the distractions of celebrities? A short answer would be yes. It is definitely unnecessary to follow the lives of the rich and famous so closely. If we get too addicted to celebrities, we need to seek help and refrain from this. Celebrity worship syndrome is a serious mental condition that we can treat as long as we are ready to reduce the amount of information about the celebrities we get. What we do not realize is that there is no one else more attractive than us on the inside. We need to realize that using Twitter will only aggravate us to ask for more about celebrities. Most importantly, we must stop blaming the media and blame ourselves instead for our addiction to celebrities. We will find that living without the influence of celebrities hard at first whenever we choose to stop following them but the end result will be rewarding.

My Nursing Philosophy

As I sit here pondering how I would communicate my values and beliefs, I think of my current job as a personal trainer, similar to nursing, on a daily basis I help individuals with their personal health both inside and out. In my job there is no room for my values or beliefs, just facts, education and being a good listener. I believe the day I become a nurse the only â€Å"values and beliefs† that I will need are those contained in the oath I take the day I become a nurse, and those legally expressed in my Nurse Practice Act. Injecting my beliefs into my practice as a nurse will most likely violate my oath and responsibilities to my patientsMy Nursing Philosophy By Christina Rivera Professional Issues NU 116 Maria Prior As I sit here pondering how I would communicate my values and beliefs, I think of my current job as a personal trainer, similar to nursing, on a daily basis I help individuals with their personal health both inside and out. In my job there is no room for my val ues or beliefs, just facts, education and being a good listener. I believe the day I become a nurse the only â€Å"values and beliefs† that I will need are those contained in the oath I take the day I become a nurse, and those legally expressed in my Nurse Practice Act.Injecting my beliefs into my practice as a nurse will most likely violate my oath and responsibilities to my patients. While I hold true to my values and beliefs when it comes to nursing, I strongly believe that putting peoples basic needs at the top the priority list when it comes to nursing is what separates good nurses from great nurses. I believe that a nurse should always act in a professional manner and act in accordance within the scope of practice. Nurses should possess qualities such as; Empathy and being able to identify with others; be caring, compassionate and committed. A urse should be ethical and non-judgmental, be honest, confident and trustworthy. Being physically fit is important, as the job i s very demanding. Last but not least a good nurse should also be an advocate for their patients and have their best interests at heart, be a good listener and communicator. My personal definitions of client, health, environment and nursing are: A client is a person with needs, whether it is medical, physical, psychological, or self-esteem. It is a nurse’s duty to make sure each person feels they have received the best health care and feel like a human being.According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the definition of health â€Å" is a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. To me health is all relative to the well being of the body. This not only includes the physical but the mental as well. Health is not only when you are sick, but also having your physical and mental health being is a good stable condition. My definition of environment does not just describe the physical area where a perso n lives; it also includes the individual emotions and thoughts.It will be my duty as a nurse to be positive with all services, and to include family and friends whom are close to the individual regarding their health. Nursing is someone who cares for people who are sick in every way and sometimes all a person needs is someone to talk to. A nurse does not only help individuals, they also help families achieve health and prevent disease. A scientific definition of nursing is â€Å"observes, assesses, and records symptoms, reactions and progress of patients†. My personal nursing philosophy is I believe it is beneficial to the patient to be treated as an uman being rather than just another patient. Allowing the patient to feel that the nurse really care about their feelings and overall health. People are at their most vulnerable state when in a hospital or nursing home, this is the time for the nurse to be reassuring and make the individual feel as comfortable as possible is one the most important aspects of nursing. References Definition of World Health Organization, Retrieved Feb 06, 2012 from http://apps. who. int/aboutwho/en/definition. html. Scientific definition of Nursing from Wiki pedia, Retrieved Feb 06, 2012 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/nursing

Hume and Kant on Free Will Essay

Abstract This paper is an attempt to show how Kant’s ideas concerning practical and transcendental freedom of the will was a significant correction to the parallel theories of Hume. It starts out by clarifying Hume’s critique of free will, especially as it appears in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. It draws the conclusion that Hume’s philosophy is espousing skepticism, and that Kant’s effort is to overcome this skepticism and restore trust in reason. The philosophy of Kant is outlined in order to make the last point. It is generally agreed that Kant supplied the definitive stamp to philosophy that ushered in the modern age. Hume, though enormously influential in his time, and a favorite in the French salons of philosophy, fell into disrepute in the Victorian era, and only since has become a subject of restored interest. Yet Hume is the philosopher cited by Kant as having stirred him from his â€Å"dogmatic slumbers’. He had espoused a philosophy of empirical skepticism, so thorough and devastating in its scope that it became impossible for Kant to remain in his settled certainties of Newtonian science. It was the spur that carried him on to compose the Critique of Pure Reason (1781), where reason is restored, and man is once more vindicated as a rational being. Just because he refuted and answered Hume’s skepticism does not imply that the latter philosophy is nullified. We must keep this in mind, that Hume’s skepticism is completely valid as far as sense experience is concerned, and Kant does not refute any part of this philosophy. What he does is posit a further dimension to human understanding, specifically, the synthetic a priori faculty of the mind, the existence of which Hume did not suspect. Only after this addition is the primacy of reason restored. So we cannot say that Kant has destroyed Hume’s philosophy, rather he has added to it. Central to Hume’s skepticism is his critique of â€Å"cause and effect†, which is spelled out to its most profound depths in chapter VII of the An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748). The preliminary task is to outline the copy principle. The premise to this is that all knowledge begins from sense experience. Among such we are able to distinguish between primary and secondary sensations. The primary sensations are extension, motion, inertia etc, which are indeed the concepts that physics tackles. Color, taste, smell etc are said to be secondary sensations, composed or derived from the primary ones. The copy principle says that the primary sensations, though not delivering complete information from the material object – which is more poignantly described as â€Å"the object in itself – nevertheless is a faithful copy of it. This is why primary sensations are distinct and forceful presences in our mind. Secondary sensations are in turn copies of the original copy, and due to this derivative nature they lose distinctness to us. We will examine the copy principle of Hume in a moment. For the time being we accept it as such and consider the consequences. For Hume’s purposes, it has allowed him to refer to objects and their motions with confidence, and not to be held back by the validity of these concepts. For without the principle we don’t know as yet that objects are objects, and motion is motion, and we would have had to deal with a chaos of sense experience, and nothing meaningful to refer to it against (1993, p. 12). So now, with the copy principle of Hume as foundation, we proceed to talk about objects in motion. Next, we observe interdependence between objects, carried out in space and time. We â€Å"know† that motion in one object is â€Å"cause† to motion in another. A billiard ball in motion strikes another, and after impact the second acquires a velocity too, and the faculty of our understanding tells us, without the least inkling of doubt, that the impact imparted by the first ball is the cause of the second ball gaining motion. This understanding is so refined that we can, with a little help from Newton’s mechanics, predict the exact trajectory of the second ball by analyzing the trajectory of the first. We know it, but how do we know it? This is the crucial question for Hume. For if we do not have the answer we are left with skepticism. After impact with the first ball the second could have taken any one of an infinite number of trajectories. But it takes only one, and indeed we expect it to take only that one. A physicist may come along and try to convince us that it could not have taken any other trajectory because the laws of motion stipulates that, with the initial conditions given, the path it takes is the only possible one. But this is not an answer to the observer of the billiard ball, because he doesn’t care what the laws of physics are. If nature had followed another mathematical law then another outcome would have been just as valid. The observer could then have framed his conundrum differently: Of the infinite possible mathematical laws why just that one? There is nothing in the inner logic of the situation that dictates that the first ball should produce exactly the prescribed trajectory in the second. Hume said this about the experimental set-up, that we may try an experiment ten times, and may arrive at the exact same result ten times. But this does not prove that the specific outcome is inevitable. Not even if we confirmed the outcome a million times, because we would still only have a statistical probability and not a proof. Hume’s conclusion is that there is no rational link between cause and effect. Yet we expect effect to follow cause, immediately and irrevocably. If this is so then, explains Hume, it is a feeling transmitted to us by custom. What exactly he means by custom is left vague. He could not have meant anything other than â€Å"observing over and over again†, even though this fails to take into account new experience. He himself supplies a famous counterexample in the Enquiry. Some one who has experienced all the shades of blue, except for a tiny strip of the spectrum, is expected to report a gap when looking at the full spectrum of blue. But the fact is that he does not observe a gap at all, and recognizes at once the full spectrum of blue, even though he is experiencing a particular shade on blue for the first time. The recognition was instantaneous, and the eye did require â€Å"accustoming† beforehand. This readily disposes the theory of â€Å"custom†. Hume, however, continues to insist that our convictions regarding cause and effect can have no other source than custom. That the inference to custom is a vague one is made clear when he comes to consider free will. The very act of consciousness, he says, testifies to the existence of free will. But coming to reflect on how it is possible that we are able to willingly set our limbs into motion, and to move and external object thereby, it appears nothing less than miraculous. The mystery in nothing less than how one immaterial body imparts momentum to another: For first: Is there any principle in all nature more mysterious than the union of soul with body; by which a supposed spiritual substance acquires such an influence over a material one, that the most refined thought is able to actuate the grossest matter? (Hume, 1993, p. 43) The upshot is that we cannot explain free will, just as surely as we cannot explain cause and effect. ‘Custom’ was hesitantly introduced to explain cause and effect, and the same comes to the rescue of free will. As constant observers of nature we come to expect an effect to always follow a cause, and the same analysis ought to be applied to the orbit of human will. In all times and in all places humans have shown a constancy in their day to day affairs, which points to a constancy in human nature. The speculation concerning the scope of free will is overdone by the philosophers, maintains Hume. The exercise of free will, when looked at through the vista of human history, does not display divergence as much as it displays constancy. Hume broaches on the distinction between freedom and necessity to make this point clear. Inanimate objects convey to us most clearly the quality of freedom. We may describe an inanimate object as indifferent to the rest of the material universe, and in that sense free. But this freedom also entails necessity. The object is subject to the necessary laws of causation, and indeed is bound entirely by them. This is the relationship that binds cause and effect to inanimate objects, and is a relationship that is composed of both freedom and necessity. Hume transposes the same analysis to the relationship between human beings and free will. The will is indeed free, but being so implies that it conforms to human nature. He proposes the following definition: By liberty, then, we can only mean a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will; this is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may; if we choose to move, we also may. (1993, p. 63) The notion of free will advanced here bears a crucial difference to the popular one, and begs to be spelt out. What Hume describes as free will is not a choice between course ‘A’ and ‘B’. Rather the choice is between ‘A’ and ‘not A’, the latter implying stagnation, not an alternative course. This is the entire extent of our free will. We choose either to move forward, or else to stand still. This is what Hume would describe as freedom to act. Free will, however, is in complete accordance with human nature, and therefore follows the laws of necessity, just as everything else in contingent reality. Free will urges us to act â€Å"freely†. With freedom to act we may respond to this urge, or we may desist. In the final analysis our understanding of free will hinges on custom, in the same way as does our understanding of cause and effect. The past is guide to the future in the probabilistic sense. Beyond probabilities we have no understanding of either, contends Hume. In order to enforce this skepticism he proceeds to dismantle the Cartesian theories that pretended to explain mind and matter interaction, especially the theory of occasionalism advanced by Father Nicholas Malebranche. In this theory God is made both motivator and executor of every act or incident that seems to be â€Å"cause†, while the circumstances which we call a cause are only occasions for God to act in such a manner. Hume complained that this not only made God a slave to his own creation, but it also eradicated free will, making everything â€Å"full of God† (1993, p. 47). By disposing summarily the Cartesian explanations of cause and effect Hume makes his skepticism complete. Kant overcomes this skepticism by revising the premise of Hume. The correction is made most forcefully in the opening to the Critique: Although all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises entirely from experience.   For it is quite possible that our empirical knowledge is a compound of that which we receive through impressions and that which our own faculty of knowing (incited by impressions) supplies from itself†¦ (1999, p. 1) To be fair to Hume, he does consider this possibility, and ponders whether there is a blueprint in the mind where all ‘causes’ and all ‘effects’ can be referred back. (1993, p. 44). But he dismisses this idea when he realizes that a static blueprint can never account for the dynamic reality. However, the faculty that Kant is suggesting is not static, rather dynamic and creative, and here lies the crucial difference. In the technical terms of Kant it is the synthetic a priori faculty of the mind. This is distinguished from the analytic a priori faculty, such as logic. The rules of logic are extant in the mind (a priori), but form a self-consistent system (analytical), and therefore do not depend on sense experience. On the first instance it seems impossible that the mind can have a faculty that is synthetic a priori, where synthetic implies that it is creative. It entails that order is created out of the chaos of sense experience, and order that was not there before. But Kant also provides proof that the mind is capable of synthesis. Mathematical propositions are synthetic a priori, he contended. The proposition â€Å"3 + 5 = 8† may sound like self-consistent logic, but it is not really so. â€Å"8† is a completely new concept, and is not contained in either â€Å"3†, â€Å"5† or â€Å"+†. If we know that â€Å"3 + 5 = 8†, it is due to a synthetic a priori faculty in the mind. As Kant relates in the Prolegomena, when he realized that mathematical propositions are indeed synthetic a priori, it led him to ponder on what other such concepts the mind uses to facilitate understanding, and it appeared to him, in due course, that â€Å"cause and effect† was a concept of understanding that derives from the same faculty. He does not at all concern himself with material reality as a â€Å"thing in itself†, that which the materialist philosophers were after in order to provide a foundation to Newtonian science. Like Hume he maintains throughout that an absolute material reality is beyond knowledge, and to speculate on its existence was futile. We only need to consider what we perceive and what we do. He also shows that Hume falters at exactly those points where he cannot dismiss material existence in itself. The copy principle is slavish to a material object in itself. The object does not deliver copies to our mind; rather the mind provides the concepts of space in which we are able to conjure up material objects from sensory data. Both â€Å"space† and â€Å"time† are pure concepts of the mind, contends Kant, and like â€Å"cause and effect† are the tools by which we come to understand contingent reality (Prolegomena, 2005, p. 26). As soon as it is made out that we are the responsible architects of our own reality, and are not passive bystanders to an absolute material reality beyond our control, we suddenly discover ourselves as moral beings. Therefore the subsequent direction of Kant’s philosophy, after the metaphysics of understanding has been established, is towards a metaphysics of morals. And so emerges the crucial distinction that Kant makes between practical and transcendental freedom. To say that we have practical freedom implies we are able to understand the world, and by doing so we direct the will accordingly. We will do so of course for practical purposes – survival, utility, convenience, happiness etc. this would seem to cover the entire orbit of freedom. But Kant went on to demonstrate, in his Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), that such freedom is not actually freedom at all, and indeed is a binding. Thus far Kant is in concord with Hume. Now, the metaphysics of understanding, as spelt out in the Critique, is not the entire picture. The synthetic a priori faculty of the mind fashions understanding out of sensory experience. But such understanding does not lead to truth. As pure concepts of understanding space and time are both necessarily infinite. But because they emanate from the finite mind they are also finite. So in their very make-up space and time lead to contradictions. The same end must necessarily meet anything that takes place within space and time. So that matter is both infinitely divisible and also made up of concrete building blocks. As another example, we have free will, but at the same time everything is caused, so we don’t have free will. Such examples are put forward by Kant as pairs of â€Å"antinomies†. According to our understanding both consequences are valid, and yet they mutually contradict each other. All practical reasoning necessarily leads to pairs of antinomies. This must be so, because we reason by means of subject and predicate, where the subject is the cause of the predicate. But this subject is in turn predicate to another subject, and so on in an infinite chain of causation. If there was an ultimate subject at the beginning of this chain, we could have claimed to have discovered the final cause, and thereby have at hand a pronouncement of truth. But in contingent reality there is no such final cause. So whenever we try to make pronouncements of truth we must face contradiction. We cannot say that practical reason is false for this reason. Life is ruled by contingencies, and practical reason is to explain the contingent, or to facilitate such understanding. Absolute truth lies beyond all contingencies, and this is ruled by â€Å"pure† reason, explains Kant. It is not within the grasp of the human mind, yet it is the underpinning of the mind, and is the source of all innate faculties. The same analysis applies to practical freedom, which is but the corollary to practical reason. With practical freedom we choose our course according to practical reason, i.e. we are motivated by self-serving motives – happiness, honor, respectability, and so on. But in doing so we bind ourselves to those endless chains of contingencies, so that we are not really free. We chase material acquisition in order to be happy, and yet it always eludes us. The definition of freedom is to escape all contingencies, and yet by the application of practical reason we are mired more and more into contingent reality. Therefore we are not free. This is indeed a contradiction, one which Hume does not pay heed to. The very act of consciousness tells us that we are free, that out will is free. If practical reason does not embody this freedom, then surely pure reason must do so. By the same token, we are in possession of a transcendental freedom, which is a path that overcomes all contingencies, and is dictated by pure reason. Kant describes this path as the moral one. We recognize and follow this path from a sense of duty. To clarify what it is, duty is done for its own sake. There is no material motive whatsoever attached to it. Not for any particular good, it is done for the universal good. It is a categorical imperative, meaning that the very make-up of our being, or pure reason, dictates that we follow it. As an aid to identifying one’s duty Kant devised the following wording for the categorical imperative: â€Å"I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law† (Moral Law, 2005, p. 74). Kant is described as overcoming Hume’s skepticism. But it is questionable whether the latter is a skeptic at all. According to a contemporary, Hume’s philosophical paradoxes are delivered with a confidence that belies skepticism: â€Å"Never has there been a Pyrrhonian more dogmatic† (qtd. in Mossner, 1936, p. 129). A more recent reassessment of Hume is carried out by the German Neo-Kantian philosopher Ernst Cassirer, who opines, â€Å"Hume’s doctrine is not to be understood as an end, but as a new beginning† (1951, p. 59). The nature of this new beginning is well articulated by Hume himself. â€Å"Indulge your passion for science,† nature tells us, according to Hume, â€Å"but let your science be human, and such as may have a direct reference to action and society† (Hume, 1993, p. 3). If we listen carefully, the moral note that Hume is sounding is hardly different from that of the categorical imperative of Kant. Not for the person’s sake, but for humanity’s sake. Not for the particular good but for the universal good. This is the essence of Hume’s projected â€Å"science of man†, as it is also the heart of Kant’s metaphysics of morals. References Cassirer, E. (1951). The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. Trans. Fritz C. A. Koelln and James P. Pettegrove. Boston: Beacon Press. Hume, D. (1993). An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. E. Steinberg (Ed.) Boston: Hackett Publishing. Kant, I. (1999). Critique of Pure Reason. W. S. Pluhar (Trans.), E. Watkins (Ed.) Boston: Hackett Publishing. Kant, I. (2005). Kant’s Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. Kant, I. (2005). The Moral Law: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Translated by H. J. Paton. New York: Routledge. Mossner, E. C. (1936). Bishop Butler and the Age of Reason: A Study in the History Of Thought. New York: Macmillan.